The most painstaking histological investigations of Broca’s area were carried out by Kreht (1936), who followed the tradition of the Vogts with their careful description of every detail and variation in cell density and size. Von Bonin’s and Bailey’s observations were essentially the same as Kreht’s, but the latter also occasionally found larger cells in layer VI. The fourth layer in all cortices examined was noticeably sparsely populated with cells. Kreht observed that Broca’s area always tended to be different from surrounding areas, but that the cytoarchitecture itself in this region varied greatly from brain to brain. Kreht also investigated homologous areas in brains of a few apes and monkeys and found that the cortices of these animals had areas with similar cytoarchitecture as that found in Broca’s area. Thus the microscopic anatomical detail does not contribute to our search for histological correlates of speech and language.
有關Broca’s area 所做的最艱苦的歷史研究是由 Kreht (1936)所擔任的。他是一位跟隨Vogts的腳步，細心的描述有關細胞密度與大小的所有細節與變化。Von Bonin’s 和Bailey’s 的觀察就跟Kreht 的觀察一樣的重要。 但Kreht 偶爾會發現到在第五層有較大的細胞。被發現到在第四層的所有皮層間只分布了稀疏的細胞。Kreht 觀察到Broca’s area 與其周圍的區域都有所不同。但在這個區域的細胞結構本身根據不同的腦袋而有很大的改變。Kreht 也調查到在一些人猿與猴子的腦袋中有類似的區域且發現這些動物的皮層都有與Broca’ area 相似的區域。所以，這些精微的解剖細節就我們研究語音與語言相關的歷史並沒有很大的貢獻。
Behavioral Maps. The mapping of speech areas is based on observations of behavioral derangement in the presence of (α) internal brain disease; (β) of penetrating head injuries (trauma); (γ) surgical excision; and (δ) observations of behavior during electrical stimulation of the exposed cortex during surgery.行為地圖
語音區域的地圖是以有關目前出現的行為擾亂的觀察為基礎。
(α)內部腦部疾病
(β)尖銳的腦部傷害(外傷)
(γ)外科手術的切除
(δ) 在手術期間對於暴露在外的皮層做電擊的刺激的行為觀察。
(α). From a heuristic point of view, the first type of observation ids the most unsatisfactory one because of many cases in which the exact location of the lesion is only a matter o speculation, and even if these brains should become available for postmodern examination the patient may have died of more widespread disease and destruction in the brain than the lesion which first caused aphasia.
從啟發式的觀點看來，第一種的觀察也是最令人不滿意的一種。因為在確切損害部位的很多例子只是種推測。即使這些大腦經過後現代的檢驗，病人死於腦袋有大規模的疾病或傷害而不是由於死於失語症。
Nevertheless, the vast majority of aphasia patients owe their speech disturbance to internal brain disease, particularly cerebro-vascular accidents, commonly known as strokes. Tissue is destroyed or function is temporarily interrupted because of insufficient blood supply caused by a clot in or rupture of a vessel. The artery most often implicated is the left middle cerebral artery, which runs along the sylvian fissure and sends out branches through the entire lateral face of the hemisphere, as shown in Fig. 2.21. It is precisely because of the vast territorial extent of this artery that behavioral derangement resulting from interference with it gives us the least specific information concerning the localization of the speech and language function. Even when the vascular insufficiency is demonstrated by x-rays of the vascular tree, the exact location of the actual dysfunction remains largely a matter of speculation.
雖然如此，但大部分失語症的病人是有他們腦內疾病的語言障礙，特別是腦血管疾病，也就是中風。因為由於血脈的結塊或是破裂而造成血液供應的不足，會造成Tissue的破壞或是功能暫時性的影響。動脈通常是腦部左邊中間的要道，通常沿著裂縫已及經過整個半腦的側臉來傳送出分支。如 表2.21.顯示。這是十分精確的因為大部分此要道之所以導致行為錯亂是因為此要道只給我們有關語音及語言作用的局佈最少的特定資訊造成了干擾。即使經由x光可以呈現出血脈的不足或缺乏，但確切機能有障礙的區域依舊需要去進一步探索。
(β). Inferences from traumatic lesions have been drawn repeatedly (Goldstein, 1942, Luria, 1947, Conrad, 1954, Russell and Espir, 1961), resulting in various maps. The extent of the lesion can be determined more accurately in these cases than in internal brain disease, but the fact is frequently overlooked that trauma also causes secondary pathology (particularly hemorrhage and edema) which may have deleterious effects on tissue far beyond the visibility destroyed areas. In Fig. 2.22 the centers of penetrating head injuries to the left hemisphere are shown with indications of those injuries which caused lasting aphasia and which did not. The subjects were veterans of Word War II. To make Russel’s and Espir’s material comparable to Conrad’s, the diagrams had to be redrawn, and in this process some distortions are inevitable because neither the original drawings nor the present mode of representation can be read unequivocally. The distortions, however, occur primarily around the outer margins of these diagrams and are due to the shortened perspective of the curved surfaces. Nevertheless, it is clear that the resulting maps are not identical although correspondences exit. In Conrad’s material, motor-speech deficits predominate on both margins of the central sulcus and extend frontally; linguistic sensory and amnestic deficits predominate in the parieto-occipital areas, but there are few cases which do not conform to this distribution. Russel and Espir do not indicate the nature of the language deficit in their original data. In both cases we cannot fail to be impressed with the random-appearing scatter of lesions and with the overlap between aphasia-producting and aphasia-free lesions. The most striking findings of these recent studies are that there seems to be no more than a statistical relationship between Broca’s area and the resultant deficit.
(β).有關外傷區域的推論一直被持續關注，導致了多樣的情況。在這些例子受傷領域可以比腦內疾病更準確的做出決定，但事實是，通常忽略了傷口也會引起第二種病狀，像是出血或浮腫，這些可能會對tissue造成有害的影響而非只是單單可見的受傷的區域。在表2.22中顯示出滲透腦部傷害中心到左半腦指出傷害有些會引起永久的失語症，有些不會。我們研究的主體是在第二次世界中的老兵。比較Russel與Espir 的Conrad的物質，這個圖表必須要重新畫，且在這過程中一些曲解使無法避免的，因為原本的畫與現在的呈現模式都沒有辦法明確的解讀。一開始由於透視這些曲線的表面，會造成發生在這些圖表的外邊緣的扭曲。然而，很明顯的，造成的地圖已經不是一樣的雖然跟出口相符。
在Conrad的物質中，言語的不足主要在sulcus中間的區域以及擴張到前部。語言感官以及amnestic的不足主要在parieto-occipital 區域。但有一些例子跟這樣的分布並不一樣。Russel以及Espir在它們的原始區域並沒有指出有語言上的不足。在這兩個例子，我們對隨機出現的受傷的傳播已及產生失語症或沒有產生失語症的傷口有了印象。最令人吃驚的發現是，現今的研究指出Broca’s area與結果上的不足只是一種統計上的關係。
(β).有關外傷區域的推論一直被持續關注，導致了多樣的情況。在這些例子受傷領域可以比腦內疾病更準確的做出決定，但事實是，通常忽略了傷口也會引起第二種病狀，像是出血或浮腫，這些可能會對tissue造成有害的影響而非只是單單可見的受傷的區域。在表2.22中顯示出滲透腦部傷害中心到左半腦指出傷害有些會引起永久的失語症，有些不會。我們研究的主體是在第二次世界中的老兵。比較Russel與Espir 的Conrad的物質，這個圖表必須要重新畫，且在這過程中一些曲解使無法避免的，因為原本的畫與現在的呈現模式都沒有辦法明確的解讀。一開始由於透視這些曲線的表面，會造成發生在這些圖表的外邊緣的扭曲。然而，很明顯的，造成的地圖已經不是一樣的雖然跟出口相符。
在Conrad的物質中，言語的不足主要在sulcus中間的區域以及擴張到前部。語言感官以及amnestic的不足主要在parieto-occipital 區域。但有一些例子跟這樣的分布並不一樣。Russel以及Espir在它們的原始區域並沒有指出有語言上的不足。在這兩個例子，我們對隨機出現的受傷的傳播已及產生失語症或沒有產生失語症的傷口有了印象。最令人吃驚的發現是，現今的研究指出Broca’s area與結果上的不足只是一種統計上的關係。
(γ). Surgical excision of limited cortical tissue is a fairly common occurrence in clinical neurology. Pefield and Roberts (1959) have described the outcome of such operations performed on 273 patients who had suffered from focal cerebral seizures caused by earlier injuries, infection, or anoxia of the brain. Over the years, examples of ablations on every part of the cortex have been accumulated, although Broca’s area was only excised once and this happened to be a patient with an atypical early history. In all of this material from which tumor cases are excluded, there are few cases in which the removal of cortical tissue resulted in more than a temporary dysphasic condition, with language function restored within a matter of days or weeks. Many operations in the critical areas had no language disturbance. This is puzzling in view of the consequences of traumatic lesions and cerebro-vascular accidents. We might have expected that in many more cases permanent aphasia had resulted. The explanation must be due to some important differences between the surgical cases and others. First, patients who come to surgery have had histories of years of abnormally functioning brains manifested by recurrent and uncontrollable seizures. We cannot be sure of the effect that this might have had on localization (using the world here in its loosest terminology). Penfield and Roberts believe that the epileptogenic focus is not the location of the lesion but is adjacent to it. The lesion itself constitutes an irritant which induces abnormal function in structurally healthy tissue. Thus, there may be a systematic “bias” in the localization of function in these brains. The tissue that is surgically removed probably had not been participating in speech function for some years. 。However, this explanation begs the basic question: why does sudden destruvtion of tissue interfere irrevocably with language in adult patients, whereas language often remains essentially unaffected in cases where similar destructions were preceded by years (sometimes a lifetime) of sporadic, short, physiological interferences?
(γ). 手術切除有限的外部皮質在臨床神經學是常常發生的。Pefield 和Roberts (1959) 有討論到因為之前的受傷，感染或是腦部缺氧而遭受腦部疾病的273位病人經過切除有限的外部皮質的手術後的結果。
這幾年來，皮層每一部切除的例子持續的增加。雖然 Broca’s area曾被排除，而這也發生在早期不合規則的歷史上。所有這些物質都把腫瘤排除，有很少的例子是移除皮層的組織導致幾天或是幾個禮拜後，短暫的語言功能重置。 很多在關鍵區域的手術都會有語言錯亂的現象。就外傷與腦部血管意外的結果來看是很令人困惑的。 我們可能預期會造成更多永久的失語症的例子。這個解釋也是由於一些有關手術例子之間的重要不同。
首先，來動手術的病人必須證明有週期性並且無法控制的腦部功能反常的病例。我們無法確定局部化(就世界來說是最大概的術語)會有的效應與影響。Penfield和Roberts相信epileptogenic的焦點不是受傷的確切地方而是其鄰近的部分。而傷口本身構成刺激，而起刺激是由於在結構健全的tissue之下激發反常的作用。因此，可能會有有系統的偏差在這些腦部的作用的局部化。 這個手術移除掉的tissue可能會影響語言功能的作用有幾年之久。然而，這個解釋產生一些基本的問題: 像是為何這些突然的tissue的destruvtion會無法阻止的干擾成人病人的語言?反之，語言通常是重要的且不受影響的，但是萬一相似的構造持續好幾年(可能是一輩子)都會有不定時，短暫的且生理上的干擾呢?
(γ). 手術切除有限的外部皮質在臨床神經學是常常發生的。Pefield 和Roberts (1959) 有討論到因為之前的受傷，感染或是腦部缺氧而遭受腦部疾病的273位病人經過切除有限的外部皮質的手術後的結果。
這幾年來，皮層每一部切除的例子持續的增加。雖然 Broca’s area曾被排除，而這也發生在早期不合規則的歷史上。所有這些物質都把腫瘤排除，有很少的例子是移除皮層的組織導致幾天或是幾個禮拜後，短暫的語言功能重置。 很多在關鍵區域的手術都會有語言錯亂的現象。就外傷與腦部血管意外的結果來看是很令人困惑的。 我們可能預期會造成更多永久的失語症的例子。這個解釋也是由於一些有關手術例子之間的重要不同。
首先，來動手術的病人必須證明有週期性並且無法控制的腦部功能反常的病例。我們無法確定局部化(就世界來說是最大概的術語)會有的效應與影響。Penfield和Roberts相信epileptogenic的焦點不是受傷的確切地方而是其鄰近的部分。而傷口本身構成刺激，而起刺激是由於在結構健全的tissue之下激發反常的作用。因此，可能會有有系統的偏差在這些腦部的作用的局部化。 這個手術移除掉的tissue可能會影響語言功能的作用有幾年之久。然而，這個解釋產生一些基本的問題: 像是為何這些突然的tissue的destruvtion會無法阻止的干擾成人病人的語言?反之，語言通常是重要的且不受影響的，但是萬一相似的構造持續好幾年(可能是一輩子)都會有不定時，短暫的且生理上的干擾呢?
The surgical cases do not differ only from traumatic and vascular lesions in terms of abnormal function. The surgical lesion is always different from the other lesions; it is usually shallower, there is no uncontrolled bleeding, it does not follow the distribution of the vascular tree, and the healing process is histologically and morphologically different from the events that follow the cerebro-vascular accidents and trauma. With this many differences between the surgical cases and other cases, it is fair to say that surgical lesions are not commensurable, and the difference in effects cannot yet be interpreted. However, there is one lesson we may learn from cortical excisions. The narrow localization theory which holds that engrams for words or syntactic rules are stored in certain aggregates of cells cannot be in accord with the clinical facts.
這個手術的例子與其他沒有甚麼不同只有外傷與血脈也就是不正常的作用。手術的傷口總是與其他的傷口不同。它通常比較淺，沒有不可控制的出血，不會照血脈的分布且痊癒的過程有邏輯得且型態上與跟腦血管意外與外傷是不同的。
手術與其他例子得很多不同，我們可以說手術的傷口不是可計量的，且影響上的不同不是可以解釋的。然而，我可以從皮層的切除學到寶貴的一課。較窄的局部化理論表示字的記憶或是句型規則是被儲存在細胞的集合體，並非根據臨床的事實。
(δ) Electrical stimulation of the exposed cortex during neurosurgery is another source of evidence for cortical function-maps. It is again Penfield and Roberts who have systematized their findings. 。For instance, they have published (1959) a cortical map showing points of stimulation affecting motor speech. From this map it is difficult to discern any sharply circumscribed area of functional representation.
Roughly, the stimulation map corroborates the impression gained from the maps of Fig. 2.22 although it does seem as if there were at least statistical discrepancies between the two types of source-material for such maps.
Roughly, the stimulation map corroborates the impression gained from the maps of Fig. 2.22 although it does seem as if there were at least statistical discrepancies between the two types of source-material for such maps.
(δ)在神經外科對於暴露的皮層給與電的刺激是另外一種皮層作用地圖的證據來源。又是Penfield 和Roberts 曾將他們的發現系統化 例如，它們出版了皮層地圖指出刺激影響動態語音。從這個地圖，很難去分辨任何功能代表的明顯的限制。 大體上，刺激的地圖印證了表2.22的意念，雖然似乎好像在這兩種來源物質上有少量的統計的差異。
